Prino’s hitchhiking resources

Miscellaneous publications from various authors

Here’s the current list of articles and publications, in chronological order. Keep an eye on this page, as Prino has a substantial amount of material that still needs to be added!

• “An informal history of hitchhiking” by John T. Schlebecker (1958) (PDF)
  From the intro, “As a hitchhiker, man and boy, for some twenty years,” the author has attempted to treat an aspect of our social history which has been generally ignored by historians.
• “Rule of Thumb for the Open Road” by Janet Graham (1966)
  A wonderful article originally published in the 6 June 1966 issue of “Sports Illustrated”, with an introduction reading “Those who wish to travel long distances on small purses should pack their kit bags and try hitchhiking, a sport that requires nerve, ingenuity, endurance and an unshakable faith that the next ride is just around the corner”
• “The Odds in Hitchhiking” by Margaret M. Clifford and Paul Cleary (1971) (PDF)
  From the card given to the drivers who stopped, “… We are conducting a survey on hitchhiking, and we are trying to find out whether physical appearance influences one’s ability to get a ride. …”
• “Thumbs out: Ethnography of Hitchhiking” by Donna Carlson (1972)
  From the intro “… In this paper, Donna Carlson examines the meaning of hitchhiking in Great Britain. As a participant observer, she recorded the terms individuals use to classify their actions as they travel by this means. The plans that girls in particular use as they hitchhike are shown in great details, as are the dangers one anticipates and tries to circumvent. …”
• “An experimental investigation of hitchhiking” by Peter Crassweller, Mary Alice Gordon, and W. H. Tedford, Jr (1972) (PDF)
  From the intro, “The present study was undertaken primarily to verify several hypotheses about hitchhiking, but also to demonstrate that strict experimental procedures could be maintained in a fluid social situation. The variables selected for investigation were (a) clothing of the hitchhiker, (b) city he attempted to hitchhike from, and (c) socioeconomic section of the city. Drivers who offered rides were analyzed according to liberalism, age, sex, number of passengers, and reason for offering the ride.”
• “Helping on the Highway - The Effects of Dependency and Sex” by Richard J. Pomazal and Gerald L. Clore (1973) (PDF)
  From the intro, “A series of three naturalistic field experiments are reported which investigated the norm of social responsibility by examining the effects of dependency and sex on helping. Experiment&nbep;I examined the effect of physical disability on the likelihood of passing motorists helping with a flat tire. Females were helped significantly more than males, but the dependency manipulation was only minimally effective. In Experiment&nbep;II the same disability cues were used in a hitchhiking context. Again females were helped significantly more than males, but surprisingly the dependency cues significantly reduced the number of ride offers. Experiment&nbep;III used hitchhiking as the behavior of interest, but this time the dependency cues involved a disabled vehicle. This dependency manipulation significantly increased help offers. In addition, females were again helped significantly more than males. In all three experiments, almost all help offers were made by males. Other variables that appeared to influence helping rates were the perceived cost of helping, the attractiveness of the solicitors, and whether they were seen as responsible for their state of dependency. The present field results complemented previous laboratory work on the same variables.”
• “On the Road: Hitchhiking on the Highway” by Abraham Miller (1973) (PDF)
  From the intro, “Getting there is half the fun—sometimes. The joys and sorrows of auto-addiction, the illusory freedom of the open road, hopes and fears for mass transit, combine in America’s quest for mobility. … How people get from where they are to where they want or need to be is the focus of this Special Report.”
• “Female hitchhiking: Strain, control, and subcultural approaches” by James R. Greenley and David G. Rice (1973) (PDF)
  
  Summary needed!
• “A Controlled Investigation of Altruistic Behavior: Helping the Hitchhiker” by Michael D. Campbell (1974) (PDF)
  From the intro, “The number of published reports of field studies on the situational determinants of altruistic behavior has declined rapidly in the past two years. Much of this decline is attributable to the problems of replicability in “real world” settings. Some of the established determinants of helping in New York City simply do not produce desired effects in Knoxville, Tennessee (Morgan, in press). The present study investigated several situational variables affecting the frequency of rides offered a higchhiker, and is intended to demonstrate how a number of methodological problems inherent in naturalistic research were minimized, thereby increasing the probability of replication.”
• “California crimes and accidents associated with hitchhiking” by (1974) (PDF)
  In the words of Bernd Wechner “Dated, yet the most comprehensive study of the safety of hitchhiking in the United States. A very rare and difficult to acquire report from 1974.”
• “Hitch-hiking” by Mario Rinvolucri (1974) (Original)
  
• “Staring and Compliance - A Field Experiment on Hitchhiking” by Mark Snyder, John Grether and Kristine Keller (1974) (PDF)
  From the summary, “A field experiment was conducted in which a single male, a single female, or a male-female couple attempted to hitch rides at four different traffic locations, under conditions in which the hitchhikers either stared at or looked away from oncoming drivers. It was found that staring increased the probability of a driver stopping from .03 to .067 (z = 2.96, p = .003). The female was a more successful hitchhiker than either the male or the couple, (z = 2.215, p = .026; z = 1.861, p = .063, respectively).”
• “Hitchhiking: Social signals at a distance” by Charles J. Morgan, Joan S. Lockard, Carol E. Fahrenbruch, and Jerry L. Smith (1975) (PDF)
  From the summary, “Hitchhiking is used as a model for the experimental investigation of long range communication. Two studies were conducted to ascertain the importance of sex, eye contact, food, secondary sex characteristics, and hand gestures in hitching a ride. Eye contact was directed either at the driver or along the side of the road. The hitchhiker was either eating or not eating fruit. The secondary sex characteristics were bust size in females and beard growth in males. Either a traditional thumb-up or a palm-up, flexed-fingers begging gesture was utilized. The recorded data include the number of cars passing the hitchhiker, the number of motorists offering rides, their passengers, and the types of vehicles they were driving. The findings suggest that the effective signals in hitching a ride are those that maximize interest and safety and minimize danger. The hitchhiking model was discussed in terms of hominid sociability and the dependence of individual survival upon group cohesion and cooperation.”
• “Who picks up whom: The fleeting encounter between motorist & hitchhiker” by David S. Alcorn and Spencer J. Condie (1975) (PDF)
  In essence, “Like attracts like”
• “Bullshitting: Road lore among hitchhikers” by Chandra Mukerji (1978) (PDF)
  From the summary, “This paper explores how people create tall tales to make frustrating activities “engaging”—as Goffman uses that term. The data are the stories hitchhikers tell one another about their travels—what they call “bullshit.” The analysis of these data suggests that bullshitting provides people with a way of managing their problems. By using difficult situations as bases for heroic autobiographical stories, people can use their problems to produce a positive self-image. Hitchhikers appear to use these stories as partial solutions to their adolescent identity problems.”
• “A cross-validation of the Sn scale on the psychological screening inventory with female hitchhikers” by Robert W. Johnson and James H. Johnson (1978) (PDF)
  From the summary, “Tested 17 nonhitchhiking, 14 occasional hitchhiking, and 18 frequent hitchhiking females of high school and college age with the Psychological Screening Inventory in an attempt to study the validity of the Social Nonconformity (Sn) scale. The frequent hitchhikers scored significantly higher than both of the other groups on Sn. These results suggest that Sn has validity for detecting relatively minor variations in socially nonconforming behavior.”
• “Predicting Motorists’ Altruism” by Stewart J. Forsyth (1978) (PDF)
  From the summary, “Three variables distinguished those altruistic motorists who stopped for a male hitch-hiker from those non-altruistic motorists who did not. All motorists who stopped for the hitch-hiker were male, motorists who passed by the hitch-hiker tended to have no experience of hitch-hiking, and motorists who reported that they lacked experience of hitch-hikers or hitchhiking tended to express negative affect toward hitch-hikers. The result that previous experience of hitch-hiking was positively correlated with the response of picking up hitch-hikers was considered in terms of the indirect or generalized reciprocation demonstrated by motorists making this response and also in terms of the learning demonstrated by these motorists after their exposure to a model of appropriate behavior.
• “Key West to Alaska: not without a hitch” by Bill Brubaker (1979)
  An article from the “Miami News” from 15 June 1979, describing the epic effort of Ilmar Saar to be “granted immortality” by the “Guinness Book of World Records” for hitchhiking, as fast as possible, from Key West in Florida to Fairbanks in Alaska.
• “Hey now, Hitchhikers!” by Larry & Don Evans (1982)
  The ultimate (dated) guide for hitchhiking in the USA and Canada, from the back cover
  “The truth about hitchhiking”
  Tips from hundreds of hitchers; the expertise gained from dozens of years on the road;…
  Stories from every state in the union. Jokes, cartoons, nightmares, tricks, and quips.…
  Facts from an unprecedented survey of nearly one thousand hitchhikers from all over North America.…
• “Personality Characteristics of the Cross-country Hitchhiker” by Stephen L. Franzoi (1985) (PDF)
  From the intro: “This paper describes the first empirical analysis of the personalities of cross-country hitchhikers. One hundred and four young adults were tested in 32 states using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) as the measuring instrument. … Implications of the results in explaining this “nomadic behavior” are discussed.”
• “Anhalterwesen und Anhalthergefahren” by Joachim Fiedler, et al (1989)
  An obviously dated study by the German Bundeskriminalamt in Wiesbasen into hitchhiking and the dangers associated with hitchhiking. (In German)
• ‘The Neglected Art of Hitch-hiking: Risk, Trust and Sustainability’ by Graeme Chesters and David Smith (2001) (PDF)
  The abstract: “This article explores the sociologically neglected practice of hitch-hiking. It demonstrates the paucity of research on what is potentially a fascinating instance of social interaction and it argues that hitch-hiking provides an interesting test case for the applicability of recent social theories of risk and trust. The reasons for the relative decline in hitch-hiking in Britain are discussed and comparisons are made with continental Europe and the U.S.. The article suggests that despite the increasingly risk-averse nature of public bodies, attention to this subject could provide interesting possibilities for policy makers concerned with the development of sustainable modes of transport, as well as for those concerned with the re-vitalisation of civil society.”
• “Hitchin’ a Ride in the 1970s: Canadian Youth Culture and the Romance with Mobility” by Linda Mahood (2014) (PDF)
  From the intro: “Today, a “gap year” is regarded as an excellent opportunity for a young person to travel for his or her personal growth. However, in the 1970s, civil society saw dropping out of school or work and drifting around as the sign of youth alienation and crazy hippie ideas. In 1969, the Trudeau government struck a task force to investigate why thousands of middle-class young people were observed hitchhiking along the Trans-Canada Highway. This article looks at the federal government’s reaction to the “transient youth” subculture through the lens of what hitchhiking meant to restless teenagers and twenty-somethings. In the early 1970s, Canadian thumb-travellers subverted hegemonic class and gender expectations by putting a new twist on the rituals associated with traditional Canadian tourism. By selfconsciously adorning themselves with backpacks, beads, Canada flags, and long bushy hair or by flipping a peace sign to oncoming traffic, they performed rituals of a romantic subcultu now, their road stories highlight more than the monotonous and carnivalesque moments of alternative travel; they can be read as key biographical moments when understandings of landscapes, national identity, and citizenship were formed.”
• “Thumb Wars: Hitchhiking, Canadian Youth Rituals and Risk in the Twentieth Century” by Linda Mahood (2015) (PDF)
  Abstract: “The “coolest thing” about hitchhiking in the 1970s was “that total sense of freedom.” Hitchhiking emerged in Canada the 1930s and grew in tandem with the use and reliability of cars and with road construction. In 1935, the Globe observed, “One could not go very far along the highway without meeting scores of people standing by the roadside vigorously waving their thumbs to secure lifts.” Inspite of adult’s warnings against taking rides from strangers, thumbing was always popular with youth, especially in the late-1960s, when the hippies linked hitchhiking on modern new motorways with participation in the youth scene. This paper examines the changing perception of hitchhiking in the twentieth century. For most of the time picking up a hitcher was perceived as an act of charity or paternalism or, in the case of females, of chivalry. A successful hitchhiking exchange is a ritual that required trust, boundary negotiation and control. However, one never knew the true identity of the hitchhiker nor the motives of the motorist, and therefore, in tandem with exciting road stories, a counter-narrative appeared in the press that challenged the commonsense assumption that rituals create social cohesion. By the 1970s, civil society’s anxiety about hippies, dropouts and youth unrest, cast a dark shadow over hitchhiking, especially for girls on the road.”
• “Hijab and “Hitchhiking”: A Field Study” by Farid Pazhoohi & Robert P. Burriss (2015) (PDF)
  Abstract: “In the West, the style of a woman’s dress is perceived as a cue to her sexual behavior and influences the likelihood that a man will initiate conversation with the woman or offer her assistance. Hijab, or Islamic veiling, varies in the extent to which it reveals skin and body shape; the style a woman adopts affects her attractiveness to men. To test whether women who wear more liberal or conservative forms of hijab are more likely to be offered help by men, we observed Iranian motorists in a “hitchhiking” situation. Here, we show that a young female confederate, standing beside a road and in view of motorists but not actively soliciting assistance, was more likely to be offered a ride when she wore a headscarf and close-fitting garments (liberal dress) rather than a full body veil (chador, conservative dress). When the woman wore liberal dress, 21.4 % of motorists offered a ride; only 3.9 % of motorists offered a ride to the woman when she wore conservative dress—a significant difference. All drivers were men. This small to medium effect is substantially larger than those reported in similar studies in Europe and extends previous research on male helping behavior and female attractiveness to Iran, a nation where courtship behavior and dress are constrained by stricter social mores and laws than apply in the West.”

Publications by Nicolas Guéguen

Why does Nicolas Guéguen require special treatment? Because he’s published quite a few articles about hitchhiking, and they’re not only serious, but Prino thinks they’re also quite humorous. That’s why!

• “Effect of Humor on Hitchhiking: A Field Experiment” (2001) (PDF)
  From the intro, “Studies have shown that a positive mood, activated by an amusing drawing, leads to increased helping behavior. Four hitchhiking confederates, 2 young men and 2 young women, tested 1600 motorists. Each confederate held a sign indicating the place where he/she wished to go. In half of the cases, a funny drawing (a smiling face) appeared on the sign. Contrary to my expectations, the funny drawing inhibited the helping behavior of the motorists, but only when the hitchhiker was a woman.”
• “Hitchhikers’ smiles and receipt of help” (with Jaques Fischer-Lokou) (2004) (PDF)
  From the intro, “The positive association of smiling on helping behavior is well established in social psychology. Nevertheless, no study was found for the effect of smiling on hitchhiking success. … Analysis showed that, when hitchhiking women were smiling, motorists stopped more frequently but not when hitchhikers were men.”
• “Bust size and hitchhiking: A field study” (2007) (PDF)
  From the intro, “ To test the effect of a woman's bust size on the rate of help offered, 1200 male and female French motorists were tested in a hitchhiking situation. … Increasing the bra-size of the female-hitchhiker was significantly associated with an increase in number of male drivers, but not female drivers, who stopped to offer a ride.”
• “Hitchhiking women’s hair color” (with Lubomir Lamy) (2009) (PDF)
  From the intro, “To test the effect of women’s hair color on the frequency of offering help, male (n = 1,508) and female (n = 892) French motorists were tested in a hitchhiking situation. Five 20- to 22- yr.-old female confederates wore a wig with blonde, brown, or black hair. Each confederate was instructed to stand by the side of a road frequented by hitchhikers and hold out her thumb to catch a ride. Blonde hair, compared with brown hair or black hair, was associated with a small but significantly larger number of male drivers who stopped to offer a ride (18 vs 14%). No difference was found for those with brown and black hair (14 and 13%, respectively). No effect of hair color was found for female drivers who stopped. The greater attractiveness associated with blonde hair for women appears to explain these data.”
• “Color and Women Hitchhikers’ Attractiveness: Gentlemen Drivers Prefer Red” (2010) (PDF)
  From the intro, “Abstract: Research has shown that with some nonhuman primates, red is associated with greater sexual attractiveness of females. Five female confederates in their early 20s posed as hitchhikers wearing T-shirts of different colors (black, white, red, blue, green, or yellow). It was found that the women wearing red solicited a higher response in the number of male drivers who stopped to offer a ride. No color effect was found when considering the behavior of female drivers.”
• ““Say it with Flowers”…to Female Drivers: Hitchhikers Holding Flowers and Driver Behavior” (with Sébastien Meineri & Jordy Stefan) (2012) (PDF)
  From the intro, Research has found that flowers are associated with positive emotions. French motorists, both male and female (N = 2,000) were tested in a hitchhiking situation. Five male and female confederates in their early twenties posed as hitchhikers either empty-handed or holding flowers in one hand. The men with flowers were found to solicit a higher response in the number of male and female drivers who stopped to offer a ride while flowers had no effect on drivers when the hitchhiker was a female. The association of flowers with romance is used to explain the results.
• “The effect of facial makeup on the frequency of drivers stopping for hitchhikers” (with Lubomir Lamy) (2013) (PDF)
  From the intro, “Summary.—Judgments of photographs have shown that makeup enhances ratings of women’s facial attractiveness. The present study assessed whether makeup affects the stopping behavior of drivers in response to a hitchhiker’s signal. Four 20- to 22-year-old female confederates wore facial makeup, or not, while pretending to be hitchhiking. Frequency of stopping was compared in 1,600 male and female drivers. Facial makeup was associated with an increase in the number of male drivers who stopped to offer a ride. Makeup did not affect frequency of stopping by female drivers.”
• “Hitchhiking and the ‘sunshine driver’: Further effects of weather conditions on helping behavior” (with Jordie Stefan) (2013) (PDF)
  From the intro, “Summary.—Previous studies have shown that pleasant weather conditions can improve people’s mood and facilitate positive social relationships. The current study tested the effect of sunshine on drivers’ willingness to give hitchhikers a ride. Four confederates (2 men, 2 women; M age?=?20 yr.) acted as hitchhikers on the roadside in France, on sunny and cloudy days. To minimize the influence of other important variables, hitchhiking was conducted only when it was not raining and only when the external temperatures were between 20° and 24°C. Motorists’ behavior in 2,864 hitchhiking events was analyzed. The results showed that both male and female drivers stopped more on sunny days than on cloudy days for both male and female hitchhikers. Perhaps the positive mood induced by the sunshine promotes helping behaviors.”

Last updated on 8 January (Additional publication)